Critical Infrastructure Protection Approaches: Analytical Outlook on Capacity Responsiveness to Dynamic Trends

Overview: Critical infrastructures (CIs) – any asset with a functionality that is critical to normal societal functions, safety, security, economic or social wellbeing of people, and disruption or destruction of which would have a very significant negative societal impact. CIs are clearly central to the normal functioning of a nation’s economy and require to be protected from both intentional and unintentional sabotages. It is important to correctly discern and aptly manage security risks within CI domains. The protection (security) of CIs and their networks can provide clear benefits to owner organizations and nations including: enabling the attainment of a properly functioning social environment and economic market, improving service security, enabling integration to external markets, and enabling service recipients (consumers, clients, and users) to benefit from new and emerging technological developments. To effectively secure CI system, firstly, it is crucial to understand three things - what can happen, how likely it is to happen, and the consequences of such happenings. One way to achieve this is through modelling and simulations of CI attributes, functionalities, operations, and behaviours to support security analysis perspectives, and especially considering the dynamics in trends and technological adoptions. Despite the availability of several security-related CI modelling approaches (tools and techniques), trends such as inter-networking, internet and IoT integrations raise new issues. Part of the issues relate to how to effectively (more precisely and realistically) model the complex behavior of interconnected CIs and their protection as system of systems (SoS). This report attempts to address the broad goal around this issue by reviewing a sample of critical infrastructure protection approaches; comprising tools, techniques, and frameworks (methodologies). The analysis covers contexts relating to the types of critical infrastructures, applicable modelling techniques, risk management scope covered, considerations for resilience, interdependency, and policy and regulations factors. Key Findings: This research presents the following key findings: 1. There is not a single specific Critical Infrastructure Protection (CIP) approach – tool, technique, methodology or framework – that exists or emerges as a ‘fit-for-all’; to allow the modelling and simulation of cyber security risks, resilience, dependency, and impact attributes in all critical infrastructure set-ups. 2. Typically, two or more modelling techniques can be (need to be) merged to cover a broader scope and context of modelling and simulation applications (areas) to achieve desirable highlevel protection and security for critical infrastructures. 3. Empirical-based, network-based, agent-based, and system dynamics-based modelling techniques are more widely used, and all offer gains for their use. 4. The deciding factors for choosing modelling techniques often rest on; complexity of use, popularity of approach, types and objectives of user Organisation and sector. 5. The scope of modelling functions and operations also help to strike the balance between ‘specificity’ and ‘generality’ of modelling technique and approach for the gains of in-depth analysis and wider coverage respectively. 6. Interdependency and resilience modelling and simulations in critical infrastructure operations, as well as associated security and safety risks; are crucial characteristics that need to be considered and explored in revising existing or developing new CIP modelling approaches. Recommendations: Key recommendations from this research include: 1. Other critical infrastructure sectors such as emergency services, food & agriculture, and dams; need to draw lessons from the energy and transportation sectors for the successive benefits of: i. Amplifying the drive and efforts towards evaluating and understanding security risks to their infrastructure and operations. ii. Support better understanding of any associated dependencies and cascading impacts. iii. Learning how to establish effective security and resilience. iv. Support the decision-making process linked with measuring the effectiveness of preparedness activities and investments. v. Improve the behavioural security-related responses of CI to disturbances or disruptions. 2. Security-related critical infrastructure modelling approaches should be developed or revised to include wider scopes of security risk management – from identification to effectiveness evaluations, to support: i. Appropriate alignment and responsiveness to the dynamic trends introduced by new technologies such as IoT and IIoT. ii. Dynamic security risk management – especially the assessment section needs to be more dynamic than static, to address the recurrent and impactful risks that emerge in critical infrastructures

Security Culture in Industrial Control Systems Organisations: A Literature Review

Industrial control systems (ICS) are a key element of a country’s critical infrastructure, which includes industries like energy, water, and transport. In recent years, an increased convergence of operational and information technology has been taking place in these systems, increasing their cyber risks, and making security a necessity. People are often described as one of the biggest security risks in ICS, and historic attacks have demonstrated their role in facilitating or deterring them. One approach to enhance the security of organisations using ICS is the development of a security culture aiming to positively influence employees’ security perceptions, knowledge, and ultimately, behaviours. Accordingly, this work aims to review the security culture literature in organisations which use ICS and the factors that affect it, to provide a summary of the field. We conclude that the factors which affect security culture in ICS organisations are in line with the factors discussed in the general literature, such as security policies and management support. Additional factors related to ICS, such as safety culture, are also highlighted. Gaps are identified, with the limited research coverage being the most prominent. As such, proposals for future research are offered, including the need to conduct research with employees whose roles are not security related

Exploring the Security Culture of Operational Technology (OT) Organisations: The Role of External Consultancy in Overcoming Organisational Barriers

Operational Technology (OT) refers to systems that control and monitor industrial processes. Organisations that use OT can be found in many sectors, including water and energy, and often operate a nation's critical infrastructure. These organisations have been under a digitalisation process, which along with increasing regulatory pressures have necessitated changes in their cybersecurity practices. The lack of internal resources has often compelled these organisations to turn to external consultancy to enhance their security. Given the differences between OT and Information Technology (IT) security practices and that OT cybersecurity is still in its infancy, developing a security culture in OT environments remains a challenge, with little research investigating this topic. We have conducted 33 interviews with professionals with a security related role working in various OT sec-tors in the UK, on the subject of security culture development. Our analysis indicates three key organisational barriers to the development of a security culture: governance structures, lack of communication between functions, and the lack of OT cybersecurity expertise. Subsequently, the role of consultants and security solution vendors in overcoming these barriers through consultancy is demonstrated. We therefore argue that these stakeholders play a crucial part in the development of security culture in OT and conclude with recommendations for these organisations

Design Considerations for Building Credible Security Testbeds:A Systematic Study of Industrial Control System Use Cases

This paper presents a mapping framework for design factors and implementation process for building credible Industrial Control Systems (ICS) security testbeds. The resilience of ICSs has become a critical concern to operators and governments following widely publicised cyber security events. The inability to apply conventional Information Technology security practice to ICSs further compounds challenges in adequately securing critical systems. To overcome these challenges, and do so without impacting live environments, testbeds for the exploration, development and evaluation of security controls are widely used. However, how a testbed is designed and its attributes, can directly impact not only its viability but also its credibility as a whole. Through a combined systematic and thematic analysis and mapping of ICS security testbed design attributes, this paper suggests that the expertise of human experimenters, design objectives, the implementation approach, architectural coverage, core characteristics, and evaluation methods; are considerations that can help establish or enhance confidence, trustworthiness and acceptance; thus, credibility of ICS security testbeds

A Review of Critical Infrastructure Protection Approaches: Improving Security through Responsiveness to the Dynamic Modelling Landscape

As new technologies such as the Internet of Things (IoT) are integrated into Critical National Infrastructures (CNI), new cybersecurity threats emerge that require specific security solutions. Approaches used for analysis include the modelling and simulation of critical infrastructure systems using attributes, functionalities, operations, and behaviours to support various security analysis viewpoints, recognising and appropriately managing associated security risks. With several critical infrastructure protection approaches available, the question of how to effectively model the complex behaviour of interconnected CNI elements and to configure their protection as a system-of-systems remains a challenge. Using a systematic review approach, existing critical infrastructure protection approaches (tools and techniques) are examined to determine their suitability given trends like IoT, and effective security modelling and analysis issues. It is found that empirical-based, agent-based, system dynamics-based, and network-based modelling are more commonly applied than economic-based and equation-based techniques, and empirical-based modelling is the most widely used. The energy and transportation critical infrastructure sectors reflect the most responsive sectors, and no one Critical Infrastructure Protection (CIP) approach – tool, technique, methodology or framework – provides a ‘fit-for-all’ capacity for all-round attribute modelling and simulation of security risks. Typically, deciding factors for CIP choices to adopt are often dominated by trade-offs between ‘complexity of use’ and ‘popularity of approach’, as well as between ‘specificity’ and ‘generality’ of application in sectors. Improved security modelling is feasible via; appropriate tweaking of CIP approaches to include a wider scope of security risk management, functional responsiveness to interdependency, resilience and policy formulation requirements, and collaborative information sharing between public and private sectors

Coping Strategies, Cultural Practices and Policy Implications on Domestic Water Supply in an Erosion Susceptible Rural Community, Nigeria

Solving water-related problems in remote regions, especially in the developing world, is context-specific and demands knowledge and attendant support of local processes and practices. Most rural communities in developing countries have basic water and other socioeconomic challenges common to them. However, the additional constraints that come with incessant landslides and gully erosion menace necessitates a holistic investigation of how the inhabitants of Nanka, a rural community in the southeastern part of Nigeria, tend to cope with shortages in the domestic water supply and other stress associated with water. This work tries to examine the domestic water coping strategies in the community in terms of water access, sources, practices, barriers, cultural influences, and other environmental issues. These factors were investigated through qualitative research methods. Major water sources in the community include surface sources, rainwater harvesting, and sachet water, while the main water coping practices are water storage, water sharing, and buying water from vendors. The current study further makes policy recommendations along the way forward